03. Class 8 History Chapter 3 Ruling the Countryside

Welcome to Class 8 History Chapter 3 Ruling the Countryside.

Introduction

This chapter explores how the Company colonized the countryside, managed revenue, redefined people’s rights, and cultivated desired crops.

Revenue for the Company

• Company’s Role: Despite being the Diwan, the East India Company primarily considered itself a trader.
• Objective: Maximize revenue while avoiding a regular assessment and collection system.
• Trade Focus: Increase revenue to buy fine cotton and silk cloth at low prices.
• Economic Impact: Within five years, the value of goods purchased in Bengal doubled, aided by locally collected revenue.
• Bengal Challenges:
  • Artisan Exodus: Artisans left villages due to forced sales at low rates.
  • Peasant Struggles: Peasants couldn’t pay demanded dues.
  • Production Decline: Artisanal production declined, and agriculture faced collapse.
• Famine Tragedy: In 1770, a devastating famine killed ten million people in Bengal—about one-third of the population. 🌾🏛️

The Permanent Settlement System of Bengal

• Background: Before British rule, Bengal had Zamindars who collected revenue on behalf of the Mughal Emperor. However, the East India Company struggled to collect revenue efficiently from rural farmers after the Battle of Buxar in 1764. Neglect led to the severe Bengal famine of 1770.
• Reforms Attempted: Warren Hastings experimented with five-yearly inspections and annual settlements but faced challenges.
• Lord Cornwallis’s Solution: In 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement. Key features:
  • Zamindars as Owners: Zamindars were recognized as landowners.
  • Hereditary Rights: They gained hereditary rights over the lands under them.
  • Fixed Revenue: The revenue payable to the Company was permanently fixed, ensuring a steady flow of income.
  • Encouraging Investment: Zamindars were incentivized to improve land productivity.
• Impact: While it stabilized revenue, the system had mixed effects on Bengal’s economy. 🌾🏛️

The Challenges of Permanent Settlement

The Permanent Settlement introduced by Lord Cornwallis had unintended consequences:

1. High Fixed Revenue: The revenue fixed for zamindars was so high that they struggled to pay it. Failure to pay led to the loss of their zamindari, resulting in numerous auctions organized by the Company.
2. Stagnant Company Revenue: Despite increased income for zamindars due to rising market prices and expanded cultivation, the Company couldn’t raise the permanently fixed revenue demand.
3. Lack of Land Improvement: Zamindars lacked interest in land improvement. Some had lost lands earlier, while others preferred earning through rent without investing in land development. 🌾🏛️
4. Oppression in Villages:
   • Cultivator’s Plight: In villages, cultivators found the system oppressive. They paid high rent to the zamindar, and their land rights were insecure.
   • Debt and Eviction: To pay rent, cultivators often borrowed from moneylenders. Failure to pay led to eviction from land cultivated for generations. 🌾🏛️

Mahalwari Settlement

By the early nineteenth century, Company officials were convinced that the revenue system needed to be changed again.

• Challenge: How could revenues be fixed permanently when the Company required more money for administration and trade?
• Holt Mackenzie’s System: In the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (now mostly in Uttar Pradesh), Holt Mackenzie introduced a new system in 1822.
  • Preserving Villages: Mackenzie believed that villages were crucial social institutions in north Indian society and needed preservation.
  • Collectors’ Role: Collectors inspected land, measured fields, and recorded customs and rights in each village.
  • Revenue Calculation: The estimated revenue for each plot within a village was aggregated to determine the total payment for the village (mahal).
  • Periodic Revision: Unlike a permanent fix, this demand was revised periodically.
  • Collection Responsibility: The village headman, rather than the zamindar, was responsible for collecting and paying the revenue.
• This system became known as the mahalwari settlement

The Munro System: A Closer Look

Origins and Implementation:

• Developed by: Captain Alexander Read and Thomas Munro, who believed traditional zamindars weren’t present in South India.
• Implemented in: South India, gradually extending across the region.

Key Features:

• Direct interaction: Cultivators (ryots) directly dealt with the government, eliminating intermediaries.
• Individual assessments: Land was surveyed, and revenue demands were assessed based on the size and productivity of each individual holding.
• Paternalistic vision: Munro envisioned British officials acting as “paternal father figures,” protecting the well-being of the ryots under their charge.

Unforeseen Consequences:

• Excessive demands: Driven by the desire for increased revenue, officials set unrealistic demands that were too high for many peasants to pay.
• Peasant hardships: The high demands resulted in:
  • Inability to pay: Peasants struggled to meet the financial burden, falling into debt and facing hardship.
  • Flight and deserted villages: Unable to cope, many ryots fled the countryside, leading to deserted villages in numerous regions.
• Unfulfilled expectations: The optimistic belief that the new system would create a class of prosperous farmers did not materialize.

British Cultivation of Crops for Europe: A Closer Look

Driven by European Demand:

• The British realized India’s potential to cultivate crops highly sought after in Europe.
• This included opium and indigo in the 18th century, followed by jute, tea, sugarcane, wheat, cotton, and rice in the following decades.

Focus on Indigo Cultivation:

• The Allure of Blue: Indigo offered a richer blue dye compared to the traditional woad used in Europe.
• Competition and Challenges: European woad producers lobbied for import bans on indigo, fearing competition.
• Shifting Production: By the end of the 18th century, existing indigo supplies from the West Indies and Americas declined significantly.
• India Fills the Gap: Bengal emerged as the world’s leading producer of indigo by 1810, meeting the rising European demand.

Two Cultivation Systems: Benefits and Burdens

• Nij Cultivation: Planter Control
  • This system allowed planters to directly manage land and hire labor for indigo production.
  • However, limitations on available fertile land and difficulty securing labor during rice cultivation seasons hampered large-scale nij cultivation. It remained a minor contributor (less than 25%).
• Ryotwari Cultivation: Exploiting Peasants
  • The British implemented a system where peasants (ryots) were forced to sign contracts (satta) for cash advances.
  • These advances came with a harsh reality: ryots had to dedicate at least 25% of their land to indigo cultivation.
  • The system was exploitative for several reasons:
    • Peasants received very low prices for their indigo.
    • The cycle of debt became inescapable due to ongoing advances.
    • Best land suitable for rice cultivation was used for indigo, impacting their primary food source.
    • Indigo’s deep roots depleted soil nutrients, making it unsuitable for rice production after harvest.

The Indigo Rebellion and Its Aftermath: A Deeper Look

The Uprising of 1859:

• Fueled by Oppression: Years of exploitation under the indigo system finally pushed Bengali ryots to revolt. They refused to:
  • Grow indigo any longer. Pay rents to the planters.
  Violent Resistance: The rebellion involved:
  • Attacks on indigo factories with weapons like swords, spears, bows, and arrows. Social boycotts against those who cooperated with the planters. Women actively participating in the fight with everyday household items.
  Breaking Free from Control: Ryots vowed to:
  • Reject any future advances for indigo cultivation. Resist intimidation tactics used by planter-employed lathiyals (strongmen).

Factors that Ignited the Rebellion:

• Beyond Just Exploitation: While the indigo system’s oppressive nature (low prices for ryots’ produce) was a key factor, other reasons contributed:
  • Support from Local Elites: Local zamindars, unhappy with the planters’ growing power and land demands, sided with the ryots. A Window of Opportunity: Ryots believed they had the British government’s backing due to the government’s fear of another rebellion following the events of 1857.Misinterpreted Actions: The Lieutenant Governor’s visit to the region was seen as a sign of government sympathy towards the ryots’ plight. Statements as Fuel: Officials’ pronouncements, like Ashley Eden’s message regarding indigo cultivation, were interpreted as support for the rebellion.

The Rebellion’s Impact:

• Intellectuals Take Notice:
  • Intellectuals from Calcutta, alarmed by the rebellion, brought attention to the issue by:
    • Exposing the ryots’ suffering. Highlighting the planters’ tyranny. Revealing the brutality of the indigo system.
  Government Response:
  • The government deployed military forces to protect planters from further violence. To investigate the situation, the Indigo Commission was established.
  The Commission’s Verdict:
  • The Commission held the planters accountable for their coercive methods used against ryots. They declared that indigo production was not economically beneficial for the ryots.
  A Compromise Reached:
  • While existing contracts had to be fulfilled, ryots were given the right to refuse indigo cultivation in the future.

Conclusion

This chapter explored the complex ways the British East India Company established control over rural India. We saw how the Company transitioned from a trading entity to a territorial power, grappling with revenue collection and resource management.

The Permanent Settlement in Bengal, while aiming for stability, resulted in unintended consequences for zamindars, cultivators, and ultimately, the Company’s own revenue. The Mahalwari and Munro systems attempted to address these issues, but challenges remained.

A key takeaway is the emphasis on cultivating crops for European markets. The focus on indigo, for example, led to the brutal exploitation of peasants through the ryotwari system. This ultimately sparked the Indigo Rebellion of 1859, a powerful display of resistance by ryots against oppressive practices.

The chapter concludes by highlighting the importance of understanding this period. By examining the Company’s methods of revenue collection, land management, and crop cultivation, we gain a deeper understanding of the impact of British colonialism on rural India’s social and economic landscape.

Keywords and Definitions for Class 8 History Chapter 3: Ruling the Countryside

East India Company (EIC): A British trading company that eventually took political control of much of India.

Diwan: A chief financial administrator.

Mughal Emperor: The ruler of the Mughal Empire, which controlled most of India from the 16th to the 18th centuries.

Famine: A severe shortage of food that leads to widespread hunger and death.

Zamindar: A hereditary landholder who collected revenue from peasants on behalf of a ruler.

Permanent Settlement: A land revenue system introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 that fixed the amount of revenue zamindars had to pay the British East India Company in perpetuity (forever).

Mahalwari Settlement: A land revenue system introduced by Holt Mackenzie in 1822 that assessed revenue based on the productivity of individual plots of land within a village.

Munro System: A land revenue system introduced in South India by Thomas Munro that involved direct interaction between cultivators (ryots) and the government.

Indigo: A plant used to produce a blue dye.

Nij Cultivation: A system of indigo cultivation where planters directly controlled the land and hired labor.

Ryotwari Cultivation: A system of indigo cultivation where peasants (ryots) were forced to sign contracts to grow indigo on a portion of their land.

Indigo Rebellion: A peasant uprising in Bengal in 1859 against the oppressive indigo cultivation system.

Recap and Questions

MCQ Questions (Multiple Choice Questions) with Answers:

1. Who appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal?

a) Robert Clive
b) Mughal Emperor
c) Lord Cornwallis
d) Warren Hastings

Answer: b) Mughal Emperor

2. What was the main objective of the Permanent Settlement introduced by Lord Cornwallis?

a) To abolish the zamindari system
b) To ensure a steady flow of income for the Company
c) To improve the lives of peasants
d) To encourage free trade

Answer: b) To ensure a steady flow of income for the Company

3. What was a negative consequence of the Permanent Settlement for the peasants?

a) They received ownership rights over land.
b) They were forced to pay high rents to the zamindars.
c) They benefited from increased agricultural production.
d) They gained more control over local government.

Answer: b) They were forced to pay high rents to the zamindars.

4. What was the key feature of the Mahalwari Settlement?

a) Introduced hereditary rights for zamindars
b) Fixed revenue demand for villages
c) Direct interaction between cultivators and the government
d) Emphasis on cash advances for indigo cultivation

Answer: b) Fixed revenue demand for villages

5. What crop cultivation led to a major rebellion in Bengal in 1859?

a) Cotton
b) Indigo
c) Rice
d) Wheat

Answer: b) Indigo

6. How did the East India Company initially collect revenue in Bengal?

a) Through a direct tax on peasants
b) By collecting a share of agricultural produce
c) By inheriting the Mughal revenue collection system
d) Through trade monopolies

Answer: c) By inheriting the Mughal revenue collection system

7. What challenges did the East India Company face in collecting revenue in Bengal?

a) Resistance from local zamindars
b) Inefficient bureaucracy
c) Frequent natural disasters
d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

8. What was the long-term impact of the Permanent Settlement on the Bengal economy?

a) Increased agricultural production and prosperity
b) Stagnant revenue for the Company and exploitation of peasants
c) Development of a strong commercial agricultural sector
d) Rise of a powerful middle class of landowners

Answer: b) Stagnant revenue for the Company and exploitation of peasants

9. What were the benefits and drawbacks of the Mahalwari Settlement compared to the Permanent Settlement?

Benefits: More equitable distribution of revenue burden, focus on village-level administration. Drawbacks: Revenue assessments could be subjective, potential for corruption at the local level.

10. How did the Indigo Rebellion influence British policies in India?

The rebellion highlighted the need for reforms in agricultural practices and treatment of peasants. It led to a shift towards a more regulated approach to cash crop cultivation.

FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions):

1. What is the difference between the Zamindari system and the Ryotwari system?

The Zamindari system and the Ryotwari system were two different land revenue systems implemented by the British in India. Here’s a breakdown of their key differences:

• Zamindari System:
  • Landownership: Recognized zamindars as hereditary landowners.
  • Revenue Collection: Zamindars collected revenue from peasants and kept a portion for themselves before forwarding the rest to the British.
  • Impact on Peasants: Could lead to exploitation by zamindars who might impose high rents.
• Ryotwari System:
  • Landownership: Recognized peasants (ryots) as direct tenants of the British government.
  • Revenue Collection: Revenue was directly assessed and collected by the government based on land quality and productivity.
  • Impact on Peasants: Potentially fairer system, but revenue assessments could be subjective.

2. What caused the Bengal Famine of 1770?

The Bengal Famine of 1770 was a devastating event that resulted in millions of deaths. Several factors contributed to the famine:

• Exploitation by the East India Company: The Company’s focus on maximizing revenue led to:
  • Neglect of agriculture: Infrastructure and investment in food production declined.
  • Stockpiling of grains: The Company hoarded grains for export, reducing availability during shortages.
• Shift towards cash crops: To meet trade demands, cultivation of cash crops like indigo replaced food crops, leading to a decline in food security.
• Natural disasters: A severe drought followed by floods disrupted rice production and exacerbated the famine.

3. What was the Indigo Rebellion about?

The Indigo Rebellion (1859) was an uprising by Bengali peasants against the oppressive indigo cultivation system enforced by British planters. Here’s why they rebelled:

• Forced Cultivation: Peasants were forced to cultivate indigo on a significant portion of their land, even if it meant neglecting food crops.
• Low Prices: They received very low prices for the indigo they produced, leading to financial hardship.
• Debt Trap: Planters often provided loans to peasants at high interest rates, trapping them in debt.

These exploitative practices led to immense hardship for the peasants, who eventually revolted to demand better conditions and freedom from forced indigo cultivation.

4. What were the results of the Indigo Rebellion?

The Indigo Rebellion had a significant impact on British policies in India:

• Exposure of Exploitation: The rebellion highlighted the brutality of the indigo system and the exploitation of peasants.
• Indigo Commission: The British government formed the Indigo Commission to investigate the rebellion’s causes. The commission’s findings exposed the planters’ malpractices.
• Decline of Indigo Cultivation: While existing contracts had to be fulfilled, peasants gained the right to refuse indigo cultivation in the future. Indigo production in Bengal declined significantly.
• Shift in Policy: The rebellion forced the British to rethink their agricultural policies in India, leading to a move towards a more regulated approach to cash crop cultivation.

The Indigo Rebellion serves as a reminder of the struggles faced by Indian peasants under British rule and the importance of fair agricultural practices.

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